Yet as stress accumulates over successive years of an outbreak, changes in tree growth and mortality become more severe, consistent and interpretable ( MacLean 1980, Wargo 1981, Rubstov 1996). This adaptive resilience can mask the effects of defoliation when individual disturbance years are observed in isolation, as some trees show negligible response or compensate until defoliation exceeds some threshold. In adapting to this life history, they have become resilient to a wide range of climatic variation and disturbance, including some amount of insect herbivory and defoliation from biotic or abiotic causes.

Yet trees are long-lived, sessile organisms that have evolved to weather many disturbances over their lifetimes. Severe defoliation also leaves trees more susceptible to other stresses that may lead to mortality ( Houston 1981, Pothier and Mailly 2006). Trees lose photosynthetic potential when they are defoliated early in the growing season, which usually reduces growth. Tree response to spring defoliation is complex. These functional differences in response apply in general to disturbances that cause spring defoliation and provide a framework that should be incorporated into forest growth and vegetation models.

Wood-growth phenology of diffuse-porous species and evergreen conifers coincides with defoliation and responds more drastically, and lower axial NSC storage makes them more vulnerable to mortality as stress accumulates. When defoliator activity lags behind wood-growth, either because xylem-growth precedes budburst ( Quercus) or defoliator activity peaks later (sawflies on Larix), impacts on annual wood-growth will always be lower.

These responses are consistent with functional differences in leaf longevity, wood growth phenology and NSC storage. Goodness-of-fit for functional-group models was strong ( R 2c = 0.61–0.88), if lower than species-specific mixed-models ( R 2c = 0.77–0.93), providing useful alternatives when species data are lacking. Mortality increased exponentially with defoliation, most rapidly for evergreen conifers, then diffuse-porous, then ring-porous species and deciduous conifers ( Larix). Growth decreased linearly or curvilinearly, least in ring-porous Quercus and deciduous conifers (by 10–40% per 100% defoliation), whereas growth of diffuse-porous hardwoods and evergreen conifers declined by 40–100%. Standardized data show that defoliation responses vary in shape and degree. I synthesized data into standardized variables suitable for numerical models and used linear mixed-effects models to test the hypotheses that responses to defoliation vary among species and functional groups. Here, I test for functional differences with published growth and mortality data from 37 studies, including 24 tree species and 11 defoliators from North America and Eurasia. Functional traits such as xylem anatomy, growth phenology or non-structural carbohydrate (NSC) storage could explain these responses, but idiosyncratic measures used by defoliation studies have frustrated efforts to generalize among species. Trees respond to defoliation in many ways some recover rapidly, while others decline gradually or die. However, cracks do not affect the structural integrity of Bamboo.Defoliation outbreaks are biological disturbances that alter tree growth and mortality in temperate forests. Just as with wood, Bamboo expands or retreats depending on temperature and humidity conditions. Vertical fissures can occur, especially in outdoor use. Each bamboo cane is unique in shape, colors and shades.

Bamboo is a natural product, no cane is 100% straight.

The Ø value refers to the base of the pole.

Sudden changes in temperature or humidity can lead to the appearance of cracks or crevices.

Especially suitable for indoor applications.

Walls of variable thickness and internodal distance in progression.

To send this product please ask for a quote HERE WARNING: Lengths longer than 4 meters are subject to special transport and delivery conditions.

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